Tips Perawatan Wajah untuk Usia Remaja
Label: wajah, remaja
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Untuk tampil menarik dengan kulit yang halus dan sehat, perlu perawatan sedari dini. Sebaiknya sejak usia belasan tahun, anak sudah mulai dibiasakan untuk merawat wajahnya secara baik dan benar.
Umumnya remaja banyak berhubungan dengan debu dan matahari. Oleh karena itu, agar wajah senantiasa halus dan sehat harus selalu menjaga kebersihan kulit.
Menurut Janny Bodhipala selaku pakar kecantikan, para remaja sebaiknya melakukan beberapa langkah perawatan dasar, yaitu:
1. Selalu mencuci muka dengan sabun cair atau sabun padat khusus muka ketika bangun tidur dan setelah beraktivitas.
Hal ini perlu dilakukan karena karakter kulit ketika remaja mengalami perubahan akibat hormonal tubuh yang ada hubungannya dengan kulit. Oleh karena itu ada istilah kulit berminyak, kering, normal, atau kombinasi. Untuk mereka yang kulitnya berminyak, bisa menggunakan scrub plus tonic sebagai penyegar. Sementara untuk mereka yang memiliki kulit kering atau normal sebaiknya menggunakan cleansing yang lembut plus tonic sebagai penyegar wajah.
2. Karena remaja umumnya beraktivitas di bawah sinar matahari, mereka juga sebaiknya menggunakan krim pelindung dengan SPF 5-6. Setiap 1 SPF setara dengan 15 menit. Jadi jika ingin berenang selama 2,5 jam, sebaiknya menggunakan sun screen dengan SPF 10.
Untuk remaja putri, tak ada salahnya jika menggunakan bedak tabur agar terlihat lebih menarik. Mereka yang kulitnya tidak bermasalah cukup melakukan 2 tahap perawatan ini setiap harinya. Namun jika kulit mereka berjerawat, ada baiknya untuk melakukan perawatan tambahan sebagai berikut:
1. Menggunakan masker untuk jerawat setidaknya satu minggu sekali yang berfungsi untuk mengangkat lemak dan mengecilkan pori-pori (khusus untuk kulit berminyak).
2. Menggunakan obat jerawat yang tersedia bebas di pasaran. Dan dipakai hanya pada bagian yang memiliki problem jerawat.
Label: wajah, remaja
Informasi Kesehatan terkait:
* masker
* Cara Menghilangkan Jerawat Pada Wajah
* Tips Kecantikan untuk Berbagi Tipe Kulit Wajah
* Tips Menghilangkan Flek Hitam di Wajah
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Ada 29 komentar untuk informasi kesehatan ini. Posting komentar Anda.
Oleh: ciiemey, tanggal: 2010-01-29 07:53:42
gmna segh cara'a mengatasi wajah berminyak??
riisiih tao...gg bisa lama pke make up...!!!
Oleh: cwex Imoetz, tanggal: 2010-01-21 20:49:41
Gmna Yach cAra.Na Hilangin Flek Hitam di waJah Yg Kering????????
Oleh: nisha, tanggal: 2010-01-15 21:55:27
Aku bt sama flek hitam yang ada d'wjahku, gmna yach cara ngilangin'x,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,?????????
Oleh: nia, tanggal: 2009-12-25 09:11:48
hmm...
byar muka kg berjerawat, ngilangin bekasnya, trus pori2 wajah mengecil gmn si...
jelaskan lebih rinci!!
Oleh: ayy reentz, tanggal: 2009-12-21 17:58:28
.duLu wajah.ku bersii dan tanpa noda..
.tp kini berminyak dan bnyak sekali flek hitam..
.truss jg bnyk kerutAn di sekitar mata..
.walaupun tiap hari make pelembab tetep ajjagh ngga ilank..
,trus gmn donkz???????????
1 2 3 4 5 6 >> >ι
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* Tips Mengatasi Kulit Wajah Berminyak dengan Cara Tradisional
* Tips Agar Tidur Nyenyak Tanpa Dengkuran
* Mencegah dan Mengatasi Rambut Rontok
* Tips Merawat Rambut Berdasarkan Jenisnya
* Brokoli Cegah Kanker Prostat
"Tips Kesehatan" selengkapnya...
Komentar terbaru:
* Olah Raga Mengurangi Resiko Amnesia
* Kiat Agar Tahan Lama Di Ranjang
* Cara Menghilangkan Jerawat Pada Wajah
* Cara Menghilangkan Jerawat Pada Wajah
* Perhatikan Sakit Kepala Anda
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Tips Kesehatan
. Tips Mengatasi Kulit Wajah Berminyak dengan Cara Tradisional
. Tips Agar Tidur Nyenyak Tanpa Dengkuran
. Mencegah dan Mengatasi Rambut Rontok
Berita Keluarga
. Tips Atasi Nyeri Saat Persalinan
. Tips Sehat Selama Hamil
. Menghilangkan Rasa Takut pada Anak
Pola Hidup
. Waspadai Tulang Keropos pada Penderita Gangguan Ginjal
. 5 Makanan Penawar Stres
. 5 Jenis Teh & Manfaatnya untuk Kesehatan
Anak dan Balita
. Bermain Merangsang Kecerdasan Anak
. Mencegah dan Mengatasi Cacingan
. Permainan Mengajak Anak Tetap Aktif
Berita Seks
. Posisi Panas Kamasutra
. Tips Bercinta Agar Hamil
. Ide Seru Warnai Kencan Seks
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Minggu, 31 Januari 2010
KEPERAWATAN MATERNITAS
KEPERAWATAN MATERNITAS
Sabtu, 18 April 2009 20:18 admin
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VISI
Menjadi salah satu departemen/bagian unggulan di departemen ilmu keperawatan USU yang mampu menghasilkan lulusan yang berkompetensi nasional/ internasional untuk melaksanakan asuhan keperawatan maternitas dalam lingkup kesehatan reproduksi wanita dan keluarga baik dalam kondisi fisiologis maupun patologis di Sumatra Utara.
MISI
1. Mengaplikasikan proses pengajaran dengan berbasis kompetensi.
2. Melaksanakan pengembangan Sumber Daya Manusia dengan sistem berkelanjutan.
3. Menyediakan sarana dan prasarana yang menunjang pendidikan keperawatan maternitas.
4. Melaksanakan proses pembelajaran klinik keperawatan maternitas berkualitas dengan pendekatan langsung kepada pasien dan keluarga (Bed Side Teaching).
5. Meningkatkan pengembangan keilmuan melalui penelitian dan pengabdian masyarakat dalam lingkup keperawatan maternitas.
6. Mengembangkan kemitraan dengan tenaga profesional lain untuk menyediakan pelayanan keperawatan maternitas berkualitas.
TUJUAN
1. Menerapkan asuhan keperawatan maternitas dalam kasus fisiologis maupun patologis pada wanita usia subur (WUS).
2. Menerapkan asuhan keperawatan maternitas dalam kasus fisiologis maupun patologis pada pasangan usia subur (PUS).
3. Menerapkan asuhan keperawatan maternitas dalam kasus fisiologis maupun patologis pada Child Bearing.
4. Menerapkan asuhan keperawatan maternitas dalam kasus fisiologis maupun patologis pada wanita menopause/ Klimakterium.
5. Menerapkan asuhan keperawatan maternitas dalam kasus fisiologis maupun patologis pada komplikasi.
6. Menerapkan asuhan keperawatan maternitas dalam kasus fisiologis maupun patologis pada gangguan ginaekologi.
1. Mengaplikasikan proses pengajaran dengan berbasis kompetensi.
2. Melaksanakan pengembangan Sumber Daya Manusia dengan sistem berkelanjutan.
3. Menyediakan sarana dan prasarana yang menunjang pendidikan keperawatan maternitas.
4. Melaksanakan proses pembelajaran klinik keperawatan maternitas berkualitas dengan pendekatan langsung kepada pasien dan keluarga (Bed Side Teaching).
5. Meningkatkan pengembangan keilmuan melalui penelitian dan pengabdian masyarakat dalam lingkup keperawatan maternitas.
6. Mengembangkan kemitraan dengan tenaga profesional lain untuk menyediakan pelayanan keperawatan maternitas berkualitas.
TUJUAN
1. Menerapkan asuhan keperawatan maternitas dalam kasus fisiologis maupun patologis pada wanita usia subur (WUS).
2. Menerapkan asuhan keperawatan maternitas dalam kasus fisiologis maupun patologis pada pasangan usia subur (PUS).
3. Menerapkan asuhan keperawatan maternitas dalam kasus fisiologis maupun patologis pada Child Bearing.
4. Menerapkan asuhan keperawatan maternitas dalam kasus fisiologis maupun patologis pada wanita menopause/ Klimakterium.
5. Menerapkan asuhan keperawatan maternitas dalam kasus fisiologis maupun patologis pada komplikasi.
6. Menerapkan asuhan keperawatan maternitas dalam kasus fisiologis maupun patologis pada gangguan ginaekologi.
STAF BAGIAN KEPERAWATAN MATERNITAS
1. Nur Afi Darti,S.Kp,M.Kep
2. Erniyati,S.Kp,MNS
3. Siti Saidah Nasution,S.Kp,M.Kep,Sp.Mat
4. Ellyta Aizar,S.Kp
5. Nur Asiah,S.Kep,Ns
Terakhir Diperbaharui ( Senin, 27 April 2009 04:57 )
You are here: Home Keperawatan Maternitas
Sabtu, 18 April 2009 20:18 admin
E-mail Cetak PDF
VISI
Menjadi salah satu departemen/bagian unggulan di departemen ilmu keperawatan USU yang mampu menghasilkan lulusan yang berkompetensi nasional/ internasional untuk melaksanakan asuhan keperawatan maternitas dalam lingkup kesehatan reproduksi wanita dan keluarga baik dalam kondisi fisiologis maupun patologis di Sumatra Utara.
MISI
1. Mengaplikasikan proses pengajaran dengan berbasis kompetensi.
2. Melaksanakan pengembangan Sumber Daya Manusia dengan sistem berkelanjutan.
3. Menyediakan sarana dan prasarana yang menunjang pendidikan keperawatan maternitas.
4. Melaksanakan proses pembelajaran klinik keperawatan maternitas berkualitas dengan pendekatan langsung kepada pasien dan keluarga (Bed Side Teaching).
5. Meningkatkan pengembangan keilmuan melalui penelitian dan pengabdian masyarakat dalam lingkup keperawatan maternitas.
6. Mengembangkan kemitraan dengan tenaga profesional lain untuk menyediakan pelayanan keperawatan maternitas berkualitas.
TUJUAN
1. Menerapkan asuhan keperawatan maternitas dalam kasus fisiologis maupun patologis pada wanita usia subur (WUS).
2. Menerapkan asuhan keperawatan maternitas dalam kasus fisiologis maupun patologis pada pasangan usia subur (PUS).
3. Menerapkan asuhan keperawatan maternitas dalam kasus fisiologis maupun patologis pada Child Bearing.
4. Menerapkan asuhan keperawatan maternitas dalam kasus fisiologis maupun patologis pada wanita menopause/ Klimakterium.
5. Menerapkan asuhan keperawatan maternitas dalam kasus fisiologis maupun patologis pada komplikasi.
6. Menerapkan asuhan keperawatan maternitas dalam kasus fisiologis maupun patologis pada gangguan ginaekologi.
1. Mengaplikasikan proses pengajaran dengan berbasis kompetensi.
2. Melaksanakan pengembangan Sumber Daya Manusia dengan sistem berkelanjutan.
3. Menyediakan sarana dan prasarana yang menunjang pendidikan keperawatan maternitas.
4. Melaksanakan proses pembelajaran klinik keperawatan maternitas berkualitas dengan pendekatan langsung kepada pasien dan keluarga (Bed Side Teaching).
5. Meningkatkan pengembangan keilmuan melalui penelitian dan pengabdian masyarakat dalam lingkup keperawatan maternitas.
6. Mengembangkan kemitraan dengan tenaga profesional lain untuk menyediakan pelayanan keperawatan maternitas berkualitas.
TUJUAN
1. Menerapkan asuhan keperawatan maternitas dalam kasus fisiologis maupun patologis pada wanita usia subur (WUS).
2. Menerapkan asuhan keperawatan maternitas dalam kasus fisiologis maupun patologis pada pasangan usia subur (PUS).
3. Menerapkan asuhan keperawatan maternitas dalam kasus fisiologis maupun patologis pada Child Bearing.
4. Menerapkan asuhan keperawatan maternitas dalam kasus fisiologis maupun patologis pada wanita menopause/ Klimakterium.
5. Menerapkan asuhan keperawatan maternitas dalam kasus fisiologis maupun patologis pada komplikasi.
6. Menerapkan asuhan keperawatan maternitas dalam kasus fisiologis maupun patologis pada gangguan ginaekologi.
STAF BAGIAN KEPERAWATAN MATERNITAS
1. Nur Afi Darti,S.Kp,M.Kep
2. Erniyati,S.Kp,MNS
3. Siti Saidah Nasution,S.Kp,M.Kep,Sp.Mat
4. Ellyta Aizar,S.Kp
5. Nur Asiah,S.Kep,Ns
Terakhir Diperbaharui ( Senin, 27 April 2009 04:57 )
You are here: Home Keperawatan Maternitas
TEKNIK DISTRAKSI
HUBUNGAN SIKAP PERAWAT DENGAN TINDAKAN PERAWAT DALAM MANAJEMEN NYERI(TEKNIK DISTRAKSI) PADA PASIEN POST OP DI RUANG BEDAH ORTHOPEDI RSUI KUSTATI SURAKARTA
Saekhatun, Saekhatun (2008) HUBUNGAN SIKAP PERAWAT DENGAN TINDAKAN PERAWAT DALAM MANAJEMEN NYERI(TEKNIK DISTRAKSI) PADA PASIEN POST OP DI RUANG BEDAH ORTHOPEDI RSUI KUSTATI SURAKARTA. Skripsi thesis, Universitas Muhammadiyah Surakarta.
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Abstract
Pembedahan merupakan salah satu bentuk terapi atau tindakan pengobatan invasif yang sering dilakukan dalam penyembuhan pasien fraktur, hal ini dapat menyebabkan dampak yang berupa respon fisiologis maupun patologis. Pembedahan dapat menyebabkan rasa takut, ansietas, nyeri, cacat dan mangakibatkan kematian. Peran perawat dalam mangurangi rasa nyeri post op dengan menggunakan berbagai bentuk tindakan yaitu dengan tindakan non farmakologi yaitu dengan menggunakan manajemen nyeri teknik distraksi, relaksasi, imajinasi terbimbing dan massage kutaneus. Tujuan penelitian ini untuk mengetahui hubungan sikap perawat dengan tindakan perawat dalam manajemen nyeri teknik distraksi pada pasien post op di ruang bedah Orthopedi RSUI Kustati Surakarta. penelitian ini merupakan penelitian deskriptif kuantitatif dengan pendekatan cross-sectional, pengambilan sampel dengan menggunakan total sampling yaitu perawat pelaksana di ruang bedah orthopedi ( Al- Huda, As-Salwa dan Az-Zaitun) yang berjumlah 29 orang. Pengumpulan data menggunakan kuesioner dan ceklist observasi. Hasil pengumpulan data kemudian dianalisa secara diskriptif dengan menggunakan uji korelasi chi- square.Berdasarkan hasil uji hubungan dengan menggunakan Chi-Square diketahui bahwa nilai χ2 hitung = 5,578 dengan nilai ρ = 0,018 pada taraf signifikan 0,05, karena nilai ρ < 0,05 maka HO ditolak dan Ha diterima. Sehingga dapat dikatakan bahwa ada hubungan yang bermakna (signifikan) antara sikap perawat dengan tindakan perawat dalam manajemen nyeri (teknik distraksi) pada pasien post op di ruang bedah Orthopedi RSUI Kustati Surakarta.
Item Type: Karya Ilmiah (Skripsi)
ID Number: J220060042
Additional Information: RAK J220-045
Uncontrolled Keywords: sikap perawat, manajemen nyeri (teknik distraksi), post op.
Subjects: R Medicine > RT Nursing
Divisions: Fakultas Ilmu Kesehatan > Keperawatan
ID Code: 909
Deposited By: Ari Fatmawati
Deposited On: 09 Feb 2009 10:37
Last Modified: 09 Feb 2009 10:37
Repository Staff Only: item control page
UMS ETD-db is powered by EPrints 3 which is developed by the School of Electronics and Computer Science at the University of Southampton. More information and software credits.
Saekhatun, Saekhatun (2008) HUBUNGAN SIKAP PERAWAT DENGAN TINDAKAN PERAWAT DALAM MANAJEMEN NYERI(TEKNIK DISTRAKSI) PADA PASIEN POST OP DI RUANG BEDAH ORTHOPEDI RSUI KUSTATI SURAKARTA. Skripsi thesis, Universitas Muhammadiyah Surakarta.
[img]
Preview
62Kb
[img] PDF
Restricted to Repository staff only
1040Kb
Image view: http://viewer.eprints.ums.ac.id/archive/etd/909
Abstract
Pembedahan merupakan salah satu bentuk terapi atau tindakan pengobatan invasif yang sering dilakukan dalam penyembuhan pasien fraktur, hal ini dapat menyebabkan dampak yang berupa respon fisiologis maupun patologis. Pembedahan dapat menyebabkan rasa takut, ansietas, nyeri, cacat dan mangakibatkan kematian. Peran perawat dalam mangurangi rasa nyeri post op dengan menggunakan berbagai bentuk tindakan yaitu dengan tindakan non farmakologi yaitu dengan menggunakan manajemen nyeri teknik distraksi, relaksasi, imajinasi terbimbing dan massage kutaneus. Tujuan penelitian ini untuk mengetahui hubungan sikap perawat dengan tindakan perawat dalam manajemen nyeri teknik distraksi pada pasien post op di ruang bedah Orthopedi RSUI Kustati Surakarta. penelitian ini merupakan penelitian deskriptif kuantitatif dengan pendekatan cross-sectional, pengambilan sampel dengan menggunakan total sampling yaitu perawat pelaksana di ruang bedah orthopedi ( Al- Huda, As-Salwa dan Az-Zaitun) yang berjumlah 29 orang. Pengumpulan data menggunakan kuesioner dan ceklist observasi. Hasil pengumpulan data kemudian dianalisa secara diskriptif dengan menggunakan uji korelasi chi- square.Berdasarkan hasil uji hubungan dengan menggunakan Chi-Square diketahui bahwa nilai χ2 hitung = 5,578 dengan nilai ρ = 0,018 pada taraf signifikan 0,05, karena nilai ρ < 0,05 maka HO ditolak dan Ha diterima. Sehingga dapat dikatakan bahwa ada hubungan yang bermakna (signifikan) antara sikap perawat dengan tindakan perawat dalam manajemen nyeri (teknik distraksi) pada pasien post op di ruang bedah Orthopedi RSUI Kustati Surakarta.
Item Type: Karya Ilmiah (Skripsi)
ID Number: J220060042
Additional Information: RAK J220-045
Uncontrolled Keywords: sikap perawat, manajemen nyeri (teknik distraksi), post op.
Subjects: R Medicine > RT Nursing
Divisions: Fakultas Ilmu Kesehatan > Keperawatan
ID Code: 909
Deposited By: Ari Fatmawati
Deposited On: 09 Feb 2009 10:37
Last Modified: 09 Feb 2009 10:37
Repository Staff Only: item control page
UMS ETD-db is powered by EPrints 3 which is developed by the School of Electronics and Computer Science at the University of Southampton. More information and software credits.
Minggu, 24 Januari 2010
Tumbuhan Obat Kuno
St. John's Wort, "Tumbuhan Obat Kuno"
Lebih dari 350 spesies Hypericum perforatum, (biasanya dikenal dengan nama St. John's wort, Tipton's weed, John's grass atau Klamath weed) telah menjadi tumbuhan obat yang populer di kalangan masyarakat dan juga diakui manfaatnya oleh praktisi medis selama berabad-abad. Nenek moyang kita juga menghubungkannya dengan kekuatan supranatural tumbuhan, mempercayai bahwa tanaman ini dapat melindungi pemakainya untuk melawan penyakit dan malapetaka.
Arsip-arsip kuno yang masih tersimpan, menyinggung penggunaan spesies Hypericum perforatum, sejak dari jaman Yunani Kuno dan jaman Kerajaan Romawi. Praktisi medis Inggris juga telah menggunakan tumbuhan ini sejak tahun 1600-an.
"Wort" bermakna tumbuhan, dan "St. John" mengacu pada Santo Yohanes sang Pembaptis. Tumbuhan ini berbunga dan dipanen sepanjang tanggal kelahirannya, 24 Juni.
Tumbuhan sepanjang tahun ini tumbuh di daerah subtropis Amerika Utara dan Eropa, Afrika Barat, dan sebagian Asia. Dia ditemukan di hutan, tanah terbuka, dan pinggir jalan. Tumbuhan ini paling banyak ditemukan di daerah bermusim dingin berat atau daerah bercurah hujan di musim panas. Benihnya peka terhadap temperatur rendah.
Jika dikelola dalam jumlah besar akan berbahaya bagi penggembalaan ternak
Karena membahayakan ternak, Amerika Serikat memperkenalkan Klamath weed beetles (Chrysolin quadrigemina) yang secara biologis dapat mengendalikan pertumbuhan St. John's wort, mengurangi populasinya secara substansial.
Biasanya resep obat herbal ini sering digunakan oleh dokter Jerman untuk perawatan pada luka bakar tingkat awal, depresi, dan kegelisahan.
Editor mencatat: Dokter homeopathic telah menggunakan Hypericum perforatum sejak awal tahun 1800-an untuk keluhan luka-luka hingga syaraf, luka tusukan, dan infeksi yang mengikutinya.
Peringatan
Bagi mereka yang memakai St. John's Wort berbarengan dengan pengobatan lain, sangat perlu untuk menginformasikan kepada dokter mereka.
Bertoleransi tinggi, Anti-Depressant yang tidak membuat kecanduan
Berdasarkan penggalian manfaat tumbuhan ini, belakangan dia menjadi populer sebagai pengobatan non-adiktif yang bertoleransi tinggi untuk melawan depresi ringan. Beberapa studi memperkuat penemuan ini.
Penyembuhan alami ini tidak serta merta berhasil, namun memerlukan waktu beberapa hari atau bahkan beberapa minggu sebelum hasilnya dapat diketahui. Senyawa efektif tumbuhan adalah hyperforin dan hypericin, yang menciptakan kelembutan untuk meredakan penyerapan serotonin (neurotransmiter yang bertanggung jawab terhadap transfer impuls-impuls syaraf ke otak), dan efek kadar dopamine (zat kimia di otak yang terkait dengan rasa nyaman dan nikmat) dan noradrenaline (zat kimia yang merespon keadaan siaga/santai atau mengatur 'ketegangan') dalam otak. Resep obat anti-depressant menghasilkan efek yang serupa, namun seringkali dibarengi dengan efek samping meracuni.
Dosis harus benar
Dosis yang tepat memainkan peranan penting dalam pemakaian St. John's wort sebagai antidepressant. Beberapa studi merekomendasikan 900 mg ekstrak St. John's wort, sedang yang lain merekomendasikan sampai 1800 mg. Meminum teh St. John's Wort tidak pernah mencapai level itu dan demikian juga dengan penentuan nilai kewajaran obat .
Beberapa obat hanya berisi 180 mg per kapsul, yang berarti seseorang harus meminum sepuluh kapsul per hari untuk mencapai hasil yang diinginkan.
Baca label dengan hati-hati. Beberapa obat meng-klaim produk mereka "mengandung 300 mg St. John'S wort," namun itu berupa bubuk tumbuhan yang direndam dan BUKAN ekstrak tumbuhan berkonsentrasi tinggi.
Studi ini tidak berniat untuk mengurangi pengetahuan ribuan tahun ke dalam efektifitas teh obat St. John'S wort, tetapi hanya menunjukkan bahwa riset masih belum selesai.
Coba dan buktikan obat rakyat
Ekstrak obat alkohol St. John's wort's, Rotoel, telah mendapatkan tempat dalam pengobatan rakyat. Itu digunakan untuk menyembuhkan luka dan melindungi kulit, dan dengan sifat antiseptiknya, dia digunakan di rumah sakit, dia cukup lembut untuk digunakan pada bayi baru lahir maupun orang tua.
Hypericum dikenal mampu melawan bakteri. Ekstrak obat alkohol juga populer sebagai obat gosok untuk linu pinggang, radang sendi, dan encok. Dia dapat mengurangi rasa sakit pada kasus keseleo dan otot, dan mengurangi pendarahan (hematoma) dan penyakit ruam saraf, dengan manfaat tambahan bahwa dia dapat dikonsumsi.
Ekstrak tumbuhan ini juga sangat membantu mengurangi kram haid dan problematika kesehatan pubertas. Untuk membuat minyak/ekstrak, bunga ini dimasukkan ke dalam minyak zaitun dan dijemur di bawah sinar matahari selama dua bulan.
Hindari terkena sinar UV selama pemakaian
Mereka yang termasuk hipersensitif terhadap sinar mungkin sebaiknya menghindari St. John'S wort sama sekali, karena hypericin meningkatkan sinar UV tanpa toleransi. Orang berkulit putih atau mereka yang mempunyai kulit sensitif hendaknya menghindari pencahayaan sinar UV ketika menggunakan St. John'S Wort, sebab khususnya dalam dosis tinggi, efek dari sinar UV akan membesar.
Barangkali inilah satu alasan mengapa mereka yang menderita mood musiman atau seasonal affective disorder, SAD (kesedihan yang dialami seseorang pada musim-musim tertentu) menga-lami hal positif ketika menggunakan St. John's wort.
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Lebih dari 350 spesies Hypericum perforatum, (biasanya dikenal dengan nama St. John's wort, Tipton's weed, John's grass atau Klamath weed) telah menjadi tumbuhan obat yang populer di kalangan masyarakat dan juga diakui manfaatnya oleh praktisi medis selama berabad-abad. Nenek moyang kita juga menghubungkannya dengan kekuatan supranatural tumbuhan, mempercayai bahwa tanaman ini dapat melindungi pemakainya untuk melawan penyakit dan malapetaka.
Arsip-arsip kuno yang masih tersimpan, menyinggung penggunaan spesies Hypericum perforatum, sejak dari jaman Yunani Kuno dan jaman Kerajaan Romawi. Praktisi medis Inggris juga telah menggunakan tumbuhan ini sejak tahun 1600-an.
"Wort" bermakna tumbuhan, dan "St. John" mengacu pada Santo Yohanes sang Pembaptis. Tumbuhan ini berbunga dan dipanen sepanjang tanggal kelahirannya, 24 Juni.
Tumbuhan sepanjang tahun ini tumbuh di daerah subtropis Amerika Utara dan Eropa, Afrika Barat, dan sebagian Asia. Dia ditemukan di hutan, tanah terbuka, dan pinggir jalan. Tumbuhan ini paling banyak ditemukan di daerah bermusim dingin berat atau daerah bercurah hujan di musim panas. Benihnya peka terhadap temperatur rendah.
Jika dikelola dalam jumlah besar akan berbahaya bagi penggembalaan ternak
Karena membahayakan ternak, Amerika Serikat memperkenalkan Klamath weed beetles (Chrysolin quadrigemina) yang secara biologis dapat mengendalikan pertumbuhan St. John's wort, mengurangi populasinya secara substansial.
Biasanya resep obat herbal ini sering digunakan oleh dokter Jerman untuk perawatan pada luka bakar tingkat awal, depresi, dan kegelisahan.
Editor mencatat: Dokter homeopathic telah menggunakan Hypericum perforatum sejak awal tahun 1800-an untuk keluhan luka-luka hingga syaraf, luka tusukan, dan infeksi yang mengikutinya.
Peringatan
Bagi mereka yang memakai St. John's Wort berbarengan dengan pengobatan lain, sangat perlu untuk menginformasikan kepada dokter mereka.
Bertoleransi tinggi, Anti-Depressant yang tidak membuat kecanduan
Berdasarkan penggalian manfaat tumbuhan ini, belakangan dia menjadi populer sebagai pengobatan non-adiktif yang bertoleransi tinggi untuk melawan depresi ringan. Beberapa studi memperkuat penemuan ini.
Penyembuhan alami ini tidak serta merta berhasil, namun memerlukan waktu beberapa hari atau bahkan beberapa minggu sebelum hasilnya dapat diketahui. Senyawa efektif tumbuhan adalah hyperforin dan hypericin, yang menciptakan kelembutan untuk meredakan penyerapan serotonin (neurotransmiter yang bertanggung jawab terhadap transfer impuls-impuls syaraf ke otak), dan efek kadar dopamine (zat kimia di otak yang terkait dengan rasa nyaman dan nikmat) dan noradrenaline (zat kimia yang merespon keadaan siaga/santai atau mengatur 'ketegangan') dalam otak. Resep obat anti-depressant menghasilkan efek yang serupa, namun seringkali dibarengi dengan efek samping meracuni.
Dosis harus benar
Dosis yang tepat memainkan peranan penting dalam pemakaian St. John's wort sebagai antidepressant. Beberapa studi merekomendasikan 900 mg ekstrak St. John's wort, sedang yang lain merekomendasikan sampai 1800 mg. Meminum teh St. John's Wort tidak pernah mencapai level itu dan demikian juga dengan penentuan nilai kewajaran obat .
Beberapa obat hanya berisi 180 mg per kapsul, yang berarti seseorang harus meminum sepuluh kapsul per hari untuk mencapai hasil yang diinginkan.
Baca label dengan hati-hati. Beberapa obat meng-klaim produk mereka "mengandung 300 mg St. John'S wort," namun itu berupa bubuk tumbuhan yang direndam dan BUKAN ekstrak tumbuhan berkonsentrasi tinggi.
Studi ini tidak berniat untuk mengurangi pengetahuan ribuan tahun ke dalam efektifitas teh obat St. John'S wort, tetapi hanya menunjukkan bahwa riset masih belum selesai.
Coba dan buktikan obat rakyat
Ekstrak obat alkohol St. John's wort's, Rotoel, telah mendapatkan tempat dalam pengobatan rakyat. Itu digunakan untuk menyembuhkan luka dan melindungi kulit, dan dengan sifat antiseptiknya, dia digunakan di rumah sakit, dia cukup lembut untuk digunakan pada bayi baru lahir maupun orang tua.
Hypericum dikenal mampu melawan bakteri. Ekstrak obat alkohol juga populer sebagai obat gosok untuk linu pinggang, radang sendi, dan encok. Dia dapat mengurangi rasa sakit pada kasus keseleo dan otot, dan mengurangi pendarahan (hematoma) dan penyakit ruam saraf, dengan manfaat tambahan bahwa dia dapat dikonsumsi.
Ekstrak tumbuhan ini juga sangat membantu mengurangi kram haid dan problematika kesehatan pubertas. Untuk membuat minyak/ekstrak, bunga ini dimasukkan ke dalam minyak zaitun dan dijemur di bawah sinar matahari selama dua bulan.
Hindari terkena sinar UV selama pemakaian
Mereka yang termasuk hipersensitif terhadap sinar mungkin sebaiknya menghindari St. John'S wort sama sekali, karena hypericin meningkatkan sinar UV tanpa toleransi. Orang berkulit putih atau mereka yang mempunyai kulit sensitif hendaknya menghindari pencahayaan sinar UV ketika menggunakan St. John'S Wort, sebab khususnya dalam dosis tinggi, efek dari sinar UV akan membesar.
Barangkali inilah satu alasan mengapa mereka yang menderita mood musiman atau seasonal affective disorder, SAD (kesedihan yang dialami seseorang pada musim-musim tertentu) menga-lami hal positif ketika menggunakan St. John's wort.
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Psychotherapy
Psychotherapy
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Psychotherapy or personal counseling with a psychotherapist, is an intentional interpersonal relationship used by trained psychotherapists to aid a client or patient in problems of living.
It aims to increase the individual's sense of their own well-being. Psychotherapists employ a range of techniques based on experiential relationship building, dialogue, communication and behavior change and that are designed to improve the mental health of a client or patient, or to improve group relationships (such as in a family).
Psychotherapy may also be performed by practitioners with a number of different qualifications, including psychiatrists, family therapy, music therapy, occupational therapy, mental health counselor, mental health professional, psychoanalysis, and psychologists. Indeed, psychotherapy can be a profession in its own right, and in the United Kingdom it is voluntarily regulated by the United Kingdom Council for Psychotherapy.
Etymology
The word psychotherapy comes from the Ancient Greek words psychē, meaning breath, spirit, or soul and therapeia or therapeuein, to nurse or cure. [1] Its use was first noted around 1890. [2] It is defined as the relief of distress or disability in one person by another, using an approach based on a particular theory or paradigm, and that the agent performing the therapy has had some form of training in delivering this. It is these latter two points which distinguish psychotherapy from other forms of counseling or caregiving.[3]
[edit] Forms
Most forms of psychotherapy use spoken conversation. Some also use various other forms of communication such as the written word, artwork, drama, narrative story or music. Psychotherapy with children and their parents will often involve play, use of dramatization (i.e. role-play), and drawing, with a co-constructed narrative from these non-verbal and displaced modes of interacting. [4] Psychotherapy occurs within a structured encounter between a trained therapist and client(s). Purposeful, theoretically based psychotherapy began in the 19th century with psychoanalysis; since then, scores of other approaches have been developed and continue to be created.
Therapy is generally employed in response to a variety of specific or non-specific manifestations of clinically diagnosable and/or existential crises. Treatment of everyday problems is more often referred to as counseling (a distinction originally adopted by Carl Rogers). However, the term counseling is sometimes used interchangeably with "psychotherapy".
Whilst some psychotherapeutic interventions are designed to treat the patient employing the medical model, many psychotherapeutic approaches do not adhere to the symptom-based model of "illness/cure". Some practitioners, such as humanistic therapists, see themselves more in a facilitative/helper role. As sensitive and deeply personal topics are often discussed during psychotherapy, therapists are expected, and usually legally bound, to respect client or patient confidentiality. The critical importance of confidentiality is enshrined in the regulatory psychotherapeutic organizations' codes of ethical practice.
[edit] Psychotherapy systems
Search Wikinews Wikinews has related news: Dr. Joseph Merlino on sexuality, insanity, Freud, fetishes and apathy
There are several main broad systems of psychotherapy:
* Psychoanalytic - it was the first practice to be called a psychotherapy. It encourages the verbalization of all the patient's thoughts, including free associations, fantasies, and dreams, from which the analyst formulates the nature of the unconscious conflicts which are causing the patient's symptoms and character problems.
* Cognitive behavioral - generally seeks by different methods to identify and transcend maladaptive cognition, appraisal, beliefs and reactions with the aim of influencing destructive negative emotions and problematic dysfunctional behaviors.
* Psychodynamic - is a form of depth psychology, the primary focus of which is to reveal the unconscious content of a client's psyche in an effort to alleviate psychic tension. Although its roots are in psychoanalysis, psychodynamic therapy tends to be briefer and less intensive than traditional psychoanalysis.
* Existential - is based on the existential belief that human beings are alone in the world. This isolation leads to feelings of meaninglessness, which can be overcome only by creating one's own values and meanings.
* Humanistic - emerged in reaction to both behaviorism and psychoanalysis and is therefore known as the Third Force in the development of psychology. It is explicitly concerned with the human context of the development of the individual with an emphasis on subjective meaning, a rejection of determinism, and a concern for positive growth rather than pathology. It posits an inherent human capacity to maximize potential, 'the self-actualizing tendency'. The task of Humanistic therapy is to create a relational environment where this tendency might flourish.
* Brief - "Brief therapy" is an umbrella term for a variety of approaches to psychotherapy. It differs from other schools of therapy in that it emphasizes (1) a focus on a specific problem and (2) direct intervention. It is solution-based rather than problem-oriented. It is less concerned with how a problem arose than with the current factors sustaining it and preventing change.
* Systemic - seeks to address people not at an individual level, as is often the focus of other forms of therapy, but as people in relationship, dealing with the interactions of groups, their patterns and dynamics (includes family therapy & marriage counseling).
* Transpersonal - Addresses the client in the context of a spiritual understanding of consciousness.
There are hundreds of psychotherapeutic approaches or schools of thought. By 1980 there were more than 250[5]; by 1996 there were more than 450[6]. The development of new and hybrid approaches continues around the wide variety of theoretical backgrounds. Many practitioners use several approaches in their work and alter their approach based on client need.
See the list of psychotherapies for an extended list of individual psychotherapies.
[edit] History
See also: History of psychotherapy and Timeline of psychotherapy
In an informal sense, psychotherapy can be said to have been practiced through the ages, as individuals received psychological counsel and reassurance from others. Purposeful, theoretically-based psychotherapy was probably first developed in the Middle East during the 9th century by the Persian physician and psychological thinker, Rhazes (AD 852-932), who was at one time the chief physician of the Baghdad hospital[7]. At that time in Europe, serious mental disorders were generally treated as demonic or medical conditions requiring punishment and confinement until the advent of moral treatment approaches in the 18th Century. This brought about a focus on the possibility of psychosocial intervention - including reasoning, moral encouragement, and group activities - to rehabilitate the "insane".
Psychoanalysis was perhaps the first specific school of psychotherapy, developed by Sigmund Freud and others through the early 1900s. Trained as a neurologist, Freud began focusing on problems that appeared to have no discernible organic basis, and theorized that they had psychological causes originating in childhood experiences and the unconscious mind. Techniques such as dream interpretation, free association, transference and analysis of the id, ego and superego were developed.
Starting in the 1950s Carl Rogers brought Person-centered psychotherapy into mainstream focus.
Many theorists, including Anna Freud, Alfred Adler, Carl Jung, Karen Horney, Otto Rank, Erik Erikson, Melanie Klein, and Heinz Kohut, built upon Freud's fundamental ideas and often formed their own differentiating systems of psychotherapy. These were all later categorized as psychodynamic, meaning anything that involved the psyche's conscious/unconscious influence on external relationships and the self. Sessions tended to number into the hundreds over several years.
Behaviorism developed in the 1920s, and behavior modification as a therapy became popularized in the 1950s and 1960s. Notable contributors were Joseph Wolpe in South Africa, M.B. Shipiro and Hans Eysenck in Britain, and John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner in the United States. Behavioral therapy approaches relied on principles of operant conditioning, classical conditioning and social learning theory to bring about therapeutic change in observable symptoms. The approach became commonly used for phobias, as well as other disorders. Some therapeutic approaches developed out of the European school of existential philosophy. Concerned mainly with the individual's ability to develop and preserve a sense of meaning and purpose throughout life, major contributors to the field in the US (e.g., Irvin Yalom, Rollo May) and Europe (Viktor Frankl, Ludwig Binswanger, Medard Boss, R.D.Laing, Emmy van Deurzen) attempted to create therapies sensitive to common 'life crises' springing from the essential bleakness of human self-awareness, previously accessible only through the complex writings of existential philosophers (e.g., Søren Kierkegaard, Jean-Paul Sartre, Gabriel Marcel, Martin Heidegger, Friedrich Nietzsche). The uniqueness of the patient-therapist relationship thus also forms a vehicle for therapeutic enquiry. A related body of thought in psychotherapy started in the 1950s with Carl Rogers. Based on existentialism and the works of Abraham Maslow and his hierarchy of human needs, Rogers brought person-centered psychotherapy into mainstream focus. The primary requirement of Rogers is that the client should be in receipt of three core 'conditions' from their counsellor or therapist: unconditional positive regard, also sometimes described as 'prizing' the person or valuing the humanity of an individual, congruence [authenticity/genuineness/transparency], and empathic understanding. The aim in using the 'core conditions' is to facilitate therapeutic change within a non-directive relationship conducive to enhancing the client's psychological well being. This type of interaction enables the client to fully experience and express themselves. Others developed the approach, like Fritz and Laura Perls in the creation of Gestalt therapy, as well as Marshall Rosenberg, founder of Nonviolent Communication, and Eric Berne, founder of Transactional Analysis. Later these fields of psychotherapy would become what is known as humanistic psychotherapy today. Self-help groups and books became widespread.
During the 1950s, Albert Ellis originated Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT). A few years later, psychiatrist Aaron T. Beck developed a form of psychotherapy known as cognitive therapy. Both of these included generally relative short, structured and present-focused therapy aimed at identifying and changing a person's beliefs, appraisals and reaction-patterns, by contrast with the more long-lasting insight-based approach of psycho-dynamic or humanistic therapies. Cognitive and behavioral therapy approaches were combined and grouped under the heading and umbrella-term Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) in the 1970s. Many approaches within CBT were oriented towards active/directive collaborative empiricism and mapping, assessing and modifying clients core beliefs and dysfunctional schemas. These approaches gained widespread acceptance as a primary treatment for numerous disorders. A "third wave" of cognitive and behavioral therapies developed, including Acceptance and Commitment Therapy and Dialectical behavior therapy, which expanded the concepts to other disorders and/or added novel components and mindfulness exercises. Counseling methods developed, including solution-focused therapy and systemic coaching. Postmodern psychotherapies such as Narrative Therapy and Coherence Therapy did not impose definitions of mental health and illness, but rather saw the goal of therapy as something constructed by the client and therapist in a social context. Systems Therapy also developed, which focuses on family and group dynamics—and Transpersonal psychology, which focuses on the spiritual facet of human experience. Other important orientations developed in the last three decades include Feminist therapy, Brief therapy, Somatic Psychology, Expressive therapy, applied Positive psychology and the Human Givens approach which is building on the best of what has gone before[8]. A survey of over 2,500 US therapists in 2006 revealed the most utilized models of therapy and the ten most influential therapists of the previous quarter-century.[9]
[edit] General concerns
Psychotherapy can be seen as an interpersonal invitation offered by (often trained and regulated) psychotherapists to aid clients in reaching their full potential or to cope better with problems of life. Psychotherapists usually receive remuneration in some form in return for their time and skills. This is one way in which the relationship can be distinguished from an altruistic offer of assistance.
Psychotherapists and counselors often require to create a therapeutic environment referred to as the frame, which is characterized by a free yet secure climate that enables the client to open up. The degree to which client feels related to the therapist may well depend on the methods and approaches used by the therapist or counselor.
Psychotherapy often includes techniques to increase awareness, for example, or to enable other choices of thought, feeling or action; to increase the sense of well-being and to better manage subjective discomfort or distress. Psychotherapy can be provided on a one-to-one basis or in group therapy. It can occur face to face, over the telephone, or, much less commonly, the Internet. Its time frame may be a matter of weeks or many years. Therapy may address specific forms of diagnosable mental illness, or everyday problems in managing or maintaining person relationships or meeting personal goals. Treatment of everyday problems is more often referred to as counseling (a distinction originally adopted by Carl Rogers) but the term is sometimes used interchangeably with "psychotherapy".
Psychotherapists employ a range of techniques to influence or persuade the client to adapt or change in the direction the client has chosen. These can be based on clear thinking about their options; experiential relationship building; dialogue, communication and adoption of behavior change strategies. Each is designed to improve the mental health of a client or patient, or to improve group relationships (as in a family). Most forms of psychotherapy use only spoken conversation, though some also use other forms of communication such as the written word, artwork, drama, narrative story, or therapeutic touch. Psychotherapy occurs within a structured encounter between a trained therapist and client(s). Because sensitive topics are often discussed during psychotherapy, therapists are expected, and usually legally bound, to respect client or patient confidentiality.
Psychotherapists are often trained, certified, and licensed, with a range of different certifications and licensing requirements depending on the jurisdiction. Psychotherapy may be undertaken by clinical psychologists,counseling psychologists, social workers, marriage-family therapists, expressive therapists, trained nurses, psychiatrists, psychoanalysts, mental health counselors, school counselors, or professionals of other mental health disciplines. Psychiatrists have medical qualifications and may also administer prescription medication. The primary training of a psychiatrist focuses on the biological aspects of mental health conditions, with some training in psychotherapy. Psychologists have more training in psychological assessment and research and, in addition, in-depth training in psychotherapy. Social workers have specialized training in linking patients to community and institutional resources, in addition to elements of psychological assessment and psychotherapy. Marriage-Family Therapists have specific training and experience working with relationships and family issues. A Licensed Professional Counselor (LPC) generally has special training in career, mental health, school, or rehabilitation counseling to include evaluation and assessments as well as psychotherapy. Many of the wide variety of training programs are multiprofessional, that is, psychiatrists, psychologists, mental health nurses, and social workers may be found in the same training group. Consequently, specialized psychotherapeutic training in most countries requires a program of continuing education after the basic degree, or involves multiple certifications attached to one specific degree.
[edit] Specific schools and approaches
Main article: list of psychotherapies
In practices of experienced psychotherapists, therapy will not represent pure types, but will draw aspects from a number of perspectives and schools.[10][11]
[edit] Psychoanalysis
Main article: Psychoanalysis
Freud , seated left of picture with Jung seated at right of picture. 1909
Psychoanalysis was developed in the late 1800s by Sigmund Freud. His therapy explores the dynamic workings of a mind understood to consist of three parts: the hedonistic id (German: das Es, "the it"), the rational ego (das Ich, "the I"), and the moral superego (das Überich, "the above-I"). Because the majority of these dynamics are said to occur outside people's awareness, Freudian psychoanalysis seeks to probe the unconscious by way of various techniques, including dream interpretation and free association. Freud maintained that the condition of the unconscious mind is profoundly influenced by childhood experiences. So, in addition to dealing with the defense mechanisms employed by an overburdened ego, his therapy addresses fixations and other issues by probing deeply into clients' youth.
Other psychodynamic theories and techniques have been developed and used by psychotherapists, psychologists, psychiatrists, personal growth facilitators, occupational therapists and social workers. Techniques for group therapy have also been developed. While behaviour is often a target of the work, many approaches value working with feelings and thoughts. This is especially true of the psychodynamic schools of psychotherapy, which today include Jungian therapy and Psychodrama as well as the psychoanalytic schools. Other approaches focus on the link between the mind and body and try to access deeper levels of the psyche through manipulation of the physical body which gave rise to various body movement based psychotherapeutic approaches such as neo-Reichian Alexander Lowen's Bioenergetic analysis, Peter Levine's Somatic Experiencing, Jack Rosenberg's integrative body psychotherapy, Pat Ogden's sensorimotor psychotherapy etc. They are not to be confused with alternative medicine body-work which seeks primarily to improve physical health because despite the fact that bodywork techniques (for example Alexander Technique, Rolfing, and the Feldenkrais Method) affect the emotions, they are not overtly designed to work on psychological issues.[citation needed]
[edit] Gestalt therapy
Main article: Gestalt Therapy
Gestalt Therapy is a major overhaul of psychoanalysis. In its early development it was called "concentration therapy" by its founders, Frederick and Laura Perls. However, its mix of theoretical influences became most organized around the work of the gestalt psychologists; thus, by the time 'Gestalt Therapy, Excitement and Growth in the Human Personality' (Perls, Hefferline, and Goodman) was written, the approach became known as "Gestalt Therapy."
Gestalt Therapy stands on top of essentially four load bearing theoretical walls: phenomenological method, dialogical relationship, field-theoretical strategies, and experimental freedom. Some have considered it an existential phenomenology while others have described it as a phenomenological behaviorism. Gestalt therapy is a humanistic, holistic, and experiential approach that does not rely on talking alone, but facilitates awareness in the various contexts of life by moving from talking about situations relatively remote to action and direct, current experience.
[edit] Group psychotherapy
Main article: Group psychotherapy
The therapeutic use of groups in modern clinical practice can be traced to the early years of the 20th century, when the American chest physician Pratt, working in Boston, described forming 'classes' of fifteen to twenty patients with tuberculosis who had been rejected for sanatorium treatment.[citation needed] The term group therapy, however, was first used around 1920 by Jacob L. Moreno, whose main contribution was the development of psychodrama, in which groups were used as both cast and audience for the exploration of individual problems by reenactment under the direction of the leader. The more analytic and exploratory use of groups in both hospital and out-patient settings was pioneered by a few European psychoanalysts who emigrated to the USA, such as Paul Schilder, who treated severely neurotic and mildly psychotic out-patients in small groups at Bellevue Hospital, New York. The power of groups was most influentially demonstrated in Britain during the Second World War, when several psychoanalysts and psychiatrists proved the value of group methods for officer selection in the War Office Selection Boards. A chance to run an Army psychiatric unit on group lines was then given to several of these pioneers, notably Wilfred Bion and Rickman, followed by S. H. Foulkes, Main, and Bridger. The Northfield Hospital in Birmingham gave its name to what came to be called the two 'Northfield Experiments', which provided the impetus for the development since the war of both social therapy, that is, the therapeutic community movement, and the use of small groups for the treatment of neurotic and personality disorders.
[edit] Medical and non-medical models
A distinction can also be made between those psychotherapies that employ a medical model and those that employ a humanistic model. In the medical model the client is seen as unwell and the therapist employs their skill to help the client back to health. The extensive use of the DSM-IV, the diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders in the United States, is an example of a medically-exclusive model.
The humanistic model of non medical in contrast strives to depathologise the human condition. The therapist attempts to create a relational environment conducive to experiential learning and help build the client's confidence in their own natural process resulting in a deeper understanding of themselves. An example would be gestalt therapy.
Some psychodynamic practitioners distinguish between more uncovering and more supportive psychotherapy. Uncovering psychotherapy emphasizes facilitating the client's insight into the roots of their difficulties. The best-known example of an uncovering psychotherapy is classical psychoanalysis. Supportive psychotherapy by contrast stresses strengthening the client's defenses and often providing encouragement and advice. Depending on the client's personality, a more supportive or more uncovering approach may be optimal. Most psychotherapists use a combination of uncovering and supportive approaches.
[edit] Cognitive behavioral therapy
Main article: Cognitive behavioral therapy
Cognitive behavioral therapy refers to a range of techniques which focus on the construction and re-construction of people's cognitions, emotions and behaviors. Generally in CBT the therapist, through a wide array of modalities, helps clients assess, recognize and deal with problematic and dysfunctional ways of thinking, emoting and behaving.
[edit] Behavior therapy
Main article: Behavior Therapy
Behavior therapy focuses on modifying overt behavior and helping clients to achieve goals. This approach is built on the principles of learning theory including operant and respondent conditioning, which makes up the area of applied behavior analysis or behavior modification. This approach includes acceptance and commitment therapy, functional analytic psychotherapy, and dialectical behavior therapy. Sometimes it is integrated with cognitive therapy to make cognitive behavior therapy. By nature, behavioral therapies are empirical (data-driven), contextual (focused on the environment and context), functional (interested in the effect or consequence a behavior ultimately has), probabilistic (viewing behavior as statistically predictable), monistic (rejecting mind-body dualism and treating the person as a unit), and relational (analyzing bidirectional interactions).[12]
[edit] Expressive therapy
Main article: Expressive therapy
Expressive therapy is a form of therapy that utilizes artistic expression as its core means of treating clients. Expressive therapists use the different disciplines of the creative arts as therapeutic interventions. This includes the modalities dance therapy, drama therapy, art therapy, music therapy, writing therapy, among others. Expressive therapists believe that often the most effective way of treating a client is through the expression of imagination in a creative work and integrating and processing what issues are raised in the act.
[edit] Narrative therapy
Main article: Narrative therapy
Narrative therapy gives attention to each person's "dominant story" by means of therapeutic conversations, which also may involve exploring unhelpful ideas and how they came to prominence. Possible social and cultural influences may be explored if the client deems it helpful.
[edit] Integrative psychotherapy
Main article: Integrative Psychotherapy
Integrative Psychotherapy represents an attempt to combine ideas and strategies from more than one theoretical approach.[13] These approaches include mixing core beliefs and combining proven techniques. Forms of integrative psychotherapy include multimodal therapy, the transtheoretical model, cyclical psychodynamics, systematic treatment selection, cognitive analytic therapy, Internal Family Systems Model, multitheoretical psychotherapy and conceptual interaction. In practice, most experienced psychotherapists develop their own integrative approach over time.
[edit] Hypnotherapy
Main article: Hypnotherapy
Hypnotherapy is therapy that is undertaken with a subject in hypnosis. Hypnotherapy is often applied in order to modify a subject's behavior, emotional content, and attitudes, as well as a wide range of conditions including dysfunctional habits, anxiety, stress-related illness, pain management, and personal development.
[edit] Adaptations for children
Counseling and psychotherapy must be adapted to meet the developmental needs of children. Many counseling preparation programs include courses in human development. Since children often do not have the ability to articulate thoughts and feelings, counselors will use a variety of media such as crayons, paint, clay, puppets, bibliocounseling (books), toys, board games, et cetera. The use of play therapy is often rooted in psychodynamic theory, but other approaches such as Solution Focused Brief Counseling may also employ the use of play in counseling. In many cases the counselor may prefer to work with the care taker of the child, especially if the child is younger than age four. Yet, by doing so, the counselor risks the perpetuation of maladaptive interactive patterns and the adverse effects on development that have already been effected on the child's end of the relationship[14] Therefore, contemporary thinking on working with this young age group has leaned towards working with parent and child simultaneously within the interaction, as well as individually as needed.[15]
[edit] Confidentiality
Further information: client confidentiality, and physician-patient privilege
Confidentiality is an integral part of the therapeutic relationship and psychotherapy in general.
[edit] Criticisms and questions regarding effectiveness
Within the psychotherapeutic community there has been some discussion of empirically-based psychotherapy, e.g.[16]
Virtually no comparisons of different psychotherapies with long follow-up times have been carried out.[17] The Helsinki Psychotherapy Study[18] is a randomized clinical trial, in which patients are monitored for 12 months after the onset of study treatments, of which each lasted approximately 6 months. The assessments are to be completed at the baseline examination and during the follow-up after 3, 7, and 9 months and 1, 1.5, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 years. The final results of this trial are yet to be published since follow-up evaluations will continue up to 2009.
There is considerable controversy over which form of psychotherapy is most effective, and more specifically, which types of therapy are optimal for treating which sorts of problems.[19]
The dropout level is quite high; one meta-analysis of 125 studies concluded that the mean dropout rate was 46.86%.[20] The high level of dropout has raised some criticism about the relevance and efficacy of psychotherapy.
Psychotherapy outcome research—in which the effectiveness of psychotherapy is measured by questionnaires given to patients before, during, and after treatment—has had difficulty distinguishing between the success or failure of the different approaches to therapy. Those who stay with their therapist for longer periods are more likely to report positively on what develops into a longer-term relationship. This suggests that some "treatment" may be open-ended with concerns associated with ongoing financial costs.
As early as 1952, in one of the earliest studies of psychotherapy treatment, Hans Eysenck reported that two thirds of therapy patients improved significantly or recovered on their own within two years, whether or not they received psychotherapy.[21]
Many psychotherapists believe that the nuances of psychotherapy cannot be captured by questionnaire-style observation, and prefer to rely on their own clinical experiences and conceptual arguments to support the type of treatment they practice.
In 2001 Bruce Wampold of the University of Wisconsin published "The Great Psychotherapy Debate"[22]. In it Wampold, a former statistician who went on to train as a counseling psychologist, reported that
1. psychotherapy is indeed effective,
2. the type of treatment is not a factor,
3. the theoretical bases of the techniques used as well as the strictness of adherence to those techniques are both not factors,
4. the therapist's strength of belief in the efficacy of the technique is a factor,
5. the therapist as a person is a large factor,
6. the alliance between the patients and the therapist (meaning affectionate and trusting feelings toward the therapist, motivation and collaboration of the client, and empathic response of the therapist) is a key factor.
Wampold therefore concludes that "we do not know why psychotherapy works".
Although the Great Psychotherapy Debate dealt primarily with data on depressed patients, subsequent articles have made similar findings for post-traumatic stress disorder[23] and youth disorders.[24]
Some report that by attempting to program or manualize treatment psychotherapists may actually be reducing efficacy, although the unstructured approach of many psychotherapists cannot appeal to patients motived to solve their difficulties through the application of specific techniques different from their past "mistakes."
Critics of psychotherapy are skeptical of the healing power of a psychotherapeutic relationship.[25] Since any intervention takes time, critics note that the passage of time alone, without therapeutic intervention, often results in psycho-social healing.[26] Social contact with others is universally seen as beneficial for all humans and regularly scheduled visits with anyone would be likely to diminish both mild and severe emotional difficulty.
Many resources available to a person experiencing emotional distress—the friendly support of friends, peers, family members, clergy contacts, personal reading, research, and independent coping—present considerable value. Critics note that humans have been dealing with crises, navigating severe social problems and finding solutions to life problems long before the advent of psychotherapy.[27] Of course, it may well be something in the patient that does not develop these "natural" supports that requires therapy.
Further critiques have emerged from feminist, constructionist and discursive sources. Key to these is the issue of power. In this regard there is a concern that clients are persuaded—both inside and outside of the consulting room—to understand themselves and their difficulties in ways that are consistent with therapeutic ideas. This means that alternative ideas (e.g., feminist, economic, spiritual) are sometimes implicitly undermined. Critics suggest that we idealise the situation when we think of therapy only as a helping relation. It is also fundamentally a political practice, in that some cultural ideas and practices are supported while others are undermined or disqualified. So, while it is seldom intended, the therapist-client relationship always participates in society's power relations and political dynamics.[28]
[edit] References
1. ^ Your dictionary definition
2. ^ Merriam-Webster dictionary definition
3. ^ Frank, Jerome (1988) [1979]. "What is Psychotherapy?". in Bloch, Sidney (ed.). An Introduction to the Psychotherapies. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 1–2. ISBN 0-19-261469-X.
4. ^ Schechter DS, Coates SW (2006). Relationally and Developmentally Focused Interventions with Young Children and Their Caregivers Affected by the Events of 9/11. In Y. Neria, R. Gross, R. Marshall, E. Susser (Eds.) September 11, 2001: Treatment, Research and Public Mental Health in the Wake of a Terrorist Attack, New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 402-427.
5. ^ Henrick 1980
6. ^ Maclennan 1996
7. ^ Fadul, J.; Canlas, R. (2009), Chess Therapy, p. 7, http://www.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=ARdncCWznjUC&oi=fnd&pg=PT8&dq=Fadul+Chess+Therapy&ots=XGkgl42sqw&sig=8GsW2OP2dVqcT9HCcVcPL0tseCY#v=onepage&q=&f=false, retrieved 2009-11-17
8. ^ Corp, N.; Tsaroucha, A.; Kingston, P. (2008), "Human Givens Therapy: The Evidence Base", Mental Health Review Journal 13 (4): 44–52, http://pavilionjournals.metapress.com/index/P83X3Q14J6J5187J.pdf, retrieved 2009-06-03
9. ^ The Top 10: The Most Influential Therapists of the Past Quarter-Century. Psychotherapy Networker.: 2007, March/April (retrieved 11 Sept 2007)
10. ^ Hans Strupp and Jeffrey Binder, Psychotherapy in a New Key. New York, Basic Books, 1984, ISBN 9780465067473
11. ^ Anthony Roth and Peter Fonagy, What Works for Whom? A Critical Review of Psychotherapy Research, Guilford Press, 2005, ISBN 572306505
12. ^ Sundberg, Norman (2001). Clinical Psychology: Evolving Theory, Practice, and Research. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall. ISBN 0130871192.
13. ^ Handbook of Psychotherapy, (Norcross&Goldried, 2005)
14. ^ Schechter DS, Willheim E (2009). When parenting becomes unthinkable: Intervening with traumatized parents and their toddlers. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 48(3), 249-254.
15. ^ Lieberman, A.F., Van Horn, P., Ippen, C.G. (2005). Towards evidence-based treatment: Child-parent psychotherapy with preschoolers exposed to marital violence. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 44, 1241-1248.
16. ^ Silverman, DK (2005), "What Works in Psychotherapy and How Do We Know?: What Evidence-Based Practice Has to Offer", Psychoanalytic Psychology 22 (2): 306–312, doi:10.1037/0736-9735.22.2.306
17. ^ Härkänen, T; Knekt, P; Virtala, E; Lindfors, O; the Helsinki Psychotherapy Study Group (2005), "A case study in comparing therapies involving informative drop-out, non-ignorable non-compliance and repeated measurements", Statistics in medicine 24 (24): 3773–3787, doi:10.1002/sim.2409
18. ^ Helsinki Psychotherapy Study
19. ^ For Psychotherapy's Claims, Skeptics Demand Proof Benedict Carey , The New York Times , August 10, 2004. Accessed December 2006
20. ^ Wierzbicki, M; Pekarik, G (May 1993), "A Meta-Analysis of Psychotherapy Dropout", Professional Psychology: Research and Practice 24 (2): 190–195, doi:10.1037/0735-7028.24.2.190, http://psycnet.apa.org/index.cfm?fa=search.displayRecord&uid=1993-30339-001
21. ^ Eysenck, Hans (1952). The Effects of Psychotherapy: An Evaluation. Journal of Consulting Psychology. pp. 16: 319–324.
22. ^ The Great Psychotherapy Debate Bruce E. Wampold, Ph.D. University of Wisconsin-Madison . Accessed December 2006
23. ^ Benish, S. G., Imel, Z. E., \& Wampold, B. E. (in press). The Relative Efficacy of Bona Fide Psychotherapies for Treating Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A Meta-Analysis of Direct Comparisons Clinical Psychology Review.
24. ^ Miller, S. D., Wampold, B. E., & Varhely, K. (In press). Direct comparisons of treatment modalities for youth disorders: A meta-analysis. Psychotherapy Research
25. ^ 1988. Against Therapy: Emotional Tyranny and the Myth of Psychological Healing. ISBN 0-689-11929-1, Jeffrey Moussaieff Masson
26. ^ Therapy's Delusions, The Myth of the Unconscious and the Exploitation of Today's Walking Worried by Ethan Watters & Richard Ofshe published by Scribner, New York, 1999
27. ^ Füredi, F. (2003) Therapy Culture: Cultivating Vulnerability in an Uncertain Age: Routledge, (ISBN 0-415-32159-X)
28. ^ Guilfoyle, M. (2005). From therapeutic power to resistance: Therapy and cultural hegemony. Theory & Psychology, 15(1), 101-124:
* Henrik, R. (ed) The Psychotherapy Handbook. The A-Z handbook to more than 250 psychotherapies as used today (1980) New American Library.
* Maclennan, Nigel. Counselling For Managers (1996) Gower. ISBN 0566080923
* Asay, Ted P., and Michael J. Lambert (1999). The Empirical Case for the Common Factors in Therapy: Quantitative Findings. In Hubble, Duncan, Miller (Eds), The Heart and Soul of Change (pp. 23–55)
[edit] Psychodynamic schools
* Aziz, Robert, C.G. Jung’s Psychology of Religion and Synchronicity (1990), currently in its 10th printing, a refereed publication of The State University of New York Press. ISBN 0-7914-0166-9.
* Aziz, Robert, Synchronicity and the Transformation of the Ethical in Jungian Psychology in Carl B. Becker, ed. Asian and Jungian Views of Ethics. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1999. ISBN 0-313-30452-1.
* Aziz, Robert, The Syndetic Paradigm: The Untrodden Path Beyond Freud and Jung (2007), a refereed publication of The State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-6982-8.
* Bateman, Anthony; Brown, Dennis and Pedder, Jonathan (2000). Introduction to Psychotherapy: An Outline of Psychodynamic Principles and Practice. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-20569-7.
* Bateman, A.; and Holmes, J. (1995). Introduction to Psychoanalysis: Contemporary Theory and Practice. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-10739-3.
* Oberst, U. E. and Stewart, A. E. (2003). Adlerian Psychotherapy: An Advanced Approach to Individual Psychology. New York: Brunner-Routledge. ISBN 1-58391-122-7
* Ellenberger, Henri F. (1970). The Discovery of the Unconscious: The History and Evolution of Dynamic Psychiatry. Basic Books.
[edit] Humanistic schools
* Schneider (et al.), Kirk (2001). The Handbook of Humanistic Psychology. SAGE Publications. ISBN 0-7619-2121-4.
* Rowan, John (2001). Ordinary Ecstasy. Brunner-Routledge. ISBN 0-415-23632-0.
* Ansel Woldt, Sarah Toman (eds) (2005). Gestalt Therapy History, Theory, and Practice. Gestalt Press. ISBN 0-7619-2791-3 (pbk.).
* Crocker, Sylvia (1999). A Well-Lived Life, Essays in Gestalt Therapy. SAGE Publications. ISBN 0-88163-287-2 (pbk.).
* Russon, John (2003). Human Experience: Philosophy, Neurosis, and the Elements of Everyday Life. State University of New York Press. ISBN 9780791457542 (pbk.).
* Yontef, Gary (1993). Awareness, Dialogue, and Process. The Gestalt Journal Press, Inc.. ISBN 0-939266-20-2 (pbk.).
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Psychotherapy or personal counseling with a psychotherapist, is an intentional interpersonal relationship used by trained psychotherapists to aid a client or patient in problems of living.
It aims to increase the individual's sense of their own well-being. Psychotherapists employ a range of techniques based on experiential relationship building, dialogue, communication and behavior change and that are designed to improve the mental health of a client or patient, or to improve group relationships (such as in a family).
Psychotherapy may also be performed by practitioners with a number of different qualifications, including psychiatrists, family therapy, music therapy, occupational therapy, mental health counselor, mental health professional, psychoanalysis, and psychologists. Indeed, psychotherapy can be a profession in its own right, and in the United Kingdom it is voluntarily regulated by the United Kingdom Council for Psychotherapy.
Etymology
The word psychotherapy comes from the Ancient Greek words psychē, meaning breath, spirit, or soul and therapeia or therapeuein, to nurse or cure. [1] Its use was first noted around 1890. [2] It is defined as the relief of distress or disability in one person by another, using an approach based on a particular theory or paradigm, and that the agent performing the therapy has had some form of training in delivering this. It is these latter two points which distinguish psychotherapy from other forms of counseling or caregiving.[3]
[edit] Forms
Most forms of psychotherapy use spoken conversation. Some also use various other forms of communication such as the written word, artwork, drama, narrative story or music. Psychotherapy with children and their parents will often involve play, use of dramatization (i.e. role-play), and drawing, with a co-constructed narrative from these non-verbal and displaced modes of interacting. [4] Psychotherapy occurs within a structured encounter between a trained therapist and client(s). Purposeful, theoretically based psychotherapy began in the 19th century with psychoanalysis; since then, scores of other approaches have been developed and continue to be created.
Therapy is generally employed in response to a variety of specific or non-specific manifestations of clinically diagnosable and/or existential crises. Treatment of everyday problems is more often referred to as counseling (a distinction originally adopted by Carl Rogers). However, the term counseling is sometimes used interchangeably with "psychotherapy".
Whilst some psychotherapeutic interventions are designed to treat the patient employing the medical model, many psychotherapeutic approaches do not adhere to the symptom-based model of "illness/cure". Some practitioners, such as humanistic therapists, see themselves more in a facilitative/helper role. As sensitive and deeply personal topics are often discussed during psychotherapy, therapists are expected, and usually legally bound, to respect client or patient confidentiality. The critical importance of confidentiality is enshrined in the regulatory psychotherapeutic organizations' codes of ethical practice.
[edit] Psychotherapy systems
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There are several main broad systems of psychotherapy:
* Psychoanalytic - it was the first practice to be called a psychotherapy. It encourages the verbalization of all the patient's thoughts, including free associations, fantasies, and dreams, from which the analyst formulates the nature of the unconscious conflicts which are causing the patient's symptoms and character problems.
* Cognitive behavioral - generally seeks by different methods to identify and transcend maladaptive cognition, appraisal, beliefs and reactions with the aim of influencing destructive negative emotions and problematic dysfunctional behaviors.
* Psychodynamic - is a form of depth psychology, the primary focus of which is to reveal the unconscious content of a client's psyche in an effort to alleviate psychic tension. Although its roots are in psychoanalysis, psychodynamic therapy tends to be briefer and less intensive than traditional psychoanalysis.
* Existential - is based on the existential belief that human beings are alone in the world. This isolation leads to feelings of meaninglessness, which can be overcome only by creating one's own values and meanings.
* Humanistic - emerged in reaction to both behaviorism and psychoanalysis and is therefore known as the Third Force in the development of psychology. It is explicitly concerned with the human context of the development of the individual with an emphasis on subjective meaning, a rejection of determinism, and a concern for positive growth rather than pathology. It posits an inherent human capacity to maximize potential, 'the self-actualizing tendency'. The task of Humanistic therapy is to create a relational environment where this tendency might flourish.
* Brief - "Brief therapy" is an umbrella term for a variety of approaches to psychotherapy. It differs from other schools of therapy in that it emphasizes (1) a focus on a specific problem and (2) direct intervention. It is solution-based rather than problem-oriented. It is less concerned with how a problem arose than with the current factors sustaining it and preventing change.
* Systemic - seeks to address people not at an individual level, as is often the focus of other forms of therapy, but as people in relationship, dealing with the interactions of groups, their patterns and dynamics (includes family therapy & marriage counseling).
* Transpersonal - Addresses the client in the context of a spiritual understanding of consciousness.
There are hundreds of psychotherapeutic approaches or schools of thought. By 1980 there were more than 250[5]; by 1996 there were more than 450[6]. The development of new and hybrid approaches continues around the wide variety of theoretical backgrounds. Many practitioners use several approaches in their work and alter their approach based on client need.
See the list of psychotherapies for an extended list of individual psychotherapies.
[edit] History
See also: History of psychotherapy and Timeline of psychotherapy
In an informal sense, psychotherapy can be said to have been practiced through the ages, as individuals received psychological counsel and reassurance from others. Purposeful, theoretically-based psychotherapy was probably first developed in the Middle East during the 9th century by the Persian physician and psychological thinker, Rhazes (AD 852-932), who was at one time the chief physician of the Baghdad hospital[7]. At that time in Europe, serious mental disorders were generally treated as demonic or medical conditions requiring punishment and confinement until the advent of moral treatment approaches in the 18th Century. This brought about a focus on the possibility of psychosocial intervention - including reasoning, moral encouragement, and group activities - to rehabilitate the "insane".
Psychoanalysis was perhaps the first specific school of psychotherapy, developed by Sigmund Freud and others through the early 1900s. Trained as a neurologist, Freud began focusing on problems that appeared to have no discernible organic basis, and theorized that they had psychological causes originating in childhood experiences and the unconscious mind. Techniques such as dream interpretation, free association, transference and analysis of the id, ego and superego were developed.
Starting in the 1950s Carl Rogers brought Person-centered psychotherapy into mainstream focus.
Many theorists, including Anna Freud, Alfred Adler, Carl Jung, Karen Horney, Otto Rank, Erik Erikson, Melanie Klein, and Heinz Kohut, built upon Freud's fundamental ideas and often formed their own differentiating systems of psychotherapy. These were all later categorized as psychodynamic, meaning anything that involved the psyche's conscious/unconscious influence on external relationships and the self. Sessions tended to number into the hundreds over several years.
Behaviorism developed in the 1920s, and behavior modification as a therapy became popularized in the 1950s and 1960s. Notable contributors were Joseph Wolpe in South Africa, M.B. Shipiro and Hans Eysenck in Britain, and John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner in the United States. Behavioral therapy approaches relied on principles of operant conditioning, classical conditioning and social learning theory to bring about therapeutic change in observable symptoms. The approach became commonly used for phobias, as well as other disorders. Some therapeutic approaches developed out of the European school of existential philosophy. Concerned mainly with the individual's ability to develop and preserve a sense of meaning and purpose throughout life, major contributors to the field in the US (e.g., Irvin Yalom, Rollo May) and Europe (Viktor Frankl, Ludwig Binswanger, Medard Boss, R.D.Laing, Emmy van Deurzen) attempted to create therapies sensitive to common 'life crises' springing from the essential bleakness of human self-awareness, previously accessible only through the complex writings of existential philosophers (e.g., Søren Kierkegaard, Jean-Paul Sartre, Gabriel Marcel, Martin Heidegger, Friedrich Nietzsche). The uniqueness of the patient-therapist relationship thus also forms a vehicle for therapeutic enquiry. A related body of thought in psychotherapy started in the 1950s with Carl Rogers. Based on existentialism and the works of Abraham Maslow and his hierarchy of human needs, Rogers brought person-centered psychotherapy into mainstream focus. The primary requirement of Rogers is that the client should be in receipt of three core 'conditions' from their counsellor or therapist: unconditional positive regard, also sometimes described as 'prizing' the person or valuing the humanity of an individual, congruence [authenticity/genuineness/transparency], and empathic understanding. The aim in using the 'core conditions' is to facilitate therapeutic change within a non-directive relationship conducive to enhancing the client's psychological well being. This type of interaction enables the client to fully experience and express themselves. Others developed the approach, like Fritz and Laura Perls in the creation of Gestalt therapy, as well as Marshall Rosenberg, founder of Nonviolent Communication, and Eric Berne, founder of Transactional Analysis. Later these fields of psychotherapy would become what is known as humanistic psychotherapy today. Self-help groups and books became widespread.
During the 1950s, Albert Ellis originated Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT). A few years later, psychiatrist Aaron T. Beck developed a form of psychotherapy known as cognitive therapy. Both of these included generally relative short, structured and present-focused therapy aimed at identifying and changing a person's beliefs, appraisals and reaction-patterns, by contrast with the more long-lasting insight-based approach of psycho-dynamic or humanistic therapies. Cognitive and behavioral therapy approaches were combined and grouped under the heading and umbrella-term Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) in the 1970s. Many approaches within CBT were oriented towards active/directive collaborative empiricism and mapping, assessing and modifying clients core beliefs and dysfunctional schemas. These approaches gained widespread acceptance as a primary treatment for numerous disorders. A "third wave" of cognitive and behavioral therapies developed, including Acceptance and Commitment Therapy and Dialectical behavior therapy, which expanded the concepts to other disorders and/or added novel components and mindfulness exercises. Counseling methods developed, including solution-focused therapy and systemic coaching. Postmodern psychotherapies such as Narrative Therapy and Coherence Therapy did not impose definitions of mental health and illness, but rather saw the goal of therapy as something constructed by the client and therapist in a social context. Systems Therapy also developed, which focuses on family and group dynamics—and Transpersonal psychology, which focuses on the spiritual facet of human experience. Other important orientations developed in the last three decades include Feminist therapy, Brief therapy, Somatic Psychology, Expressive therapy, applied Positive psychology and the Human Givens approach which is building on the best of what has gone before[8]. A survey of over 2,500 US therapists in 2006 revealed the most utilized models of therapy and the ten most influential therapists of the previous quarter-century.[9]
[edit] General concerns
Psychotherapy can be seen as an interpersonal invitation offered by (often trained and regulated) psychotherapists to aid clients in reaching their full potential or to cope better with problems of life. Psychotherapists usually receive remuneration in some form in return for their time and skills. This is one way in which the relationship can be distinguished from an altruistic offer of assistance.
Psychotherapists and counselors often require to create a therapeutic environment referred to as the frame, which is characterized by a free yet secure climate that enables the client to open up. The degree to which client feels related to the therapist may well depend on the methods and approaches used by the therapist or counselor.
Psychotherapy often includes techniques to increase awareness, for example, or to enable other choices of thought, feeling or action; to increase the sense of well-being and to better manage subjective discomfort or distress. Psychotherapy can be provided on a one-to-one basis or in group therapy. It can occur face to face, over the telephone, or, much less commonly, the Internet. Its time frame may be a matter of weeks or many years. Therapy may address specific forms of diagnosable mental illness, or everyday problems in managing or maintaining person relationships or meeting personal goals. Treatment of everyday problems is more often referred to as counseling (a distinction originally adopted by Carl Rogers) but the term is sometimes used interchangeably with "psychotherapy".
Psychotherapists employ a range of techniques to influence or persuade the client to adapt or change in the direction the client has chosen. These can be based on clear thinking about their options; experiential relationship building; dialogue, communication and adoption of behavior change strategies. Each is designed to improve the mental health of a client or patient, or to improve group relationships (as in a family). Most forms of psychotherapy use only spoken conversation, though some also use other forms of communication such as the written word, artwork, drama, narrative story, or therapeutic touch. Psychotherapy occurs within a structured encounter between a trained therapist and client(s). Because sensitive topics are often discussed during psychotherapy, therapists are expected, and usually legally bound, to respect client or patient confidentiality.
Psychotherapists are often trained, certified, and licensed, with a range of different certifications and licensing requirements depending on the jurisdiction. Psychotherapy may be undertaken by clinical psychologists,counseling psychologists, social workers, marriage-family therapists, expressive therapists, trained nurses, psychiatrists, psychoanalysts, mental health counselors, school counselors, or professionals of other mental health disciplines. Psychiatrists have medical qualifications and may also administer prescription medication. The primary training of a psychiatrist focuses on the biological aspects of mental health conditions, with some training in psychotherapy. Psychologists have more training in psychological assessment and research and, in addition, in-depth training in psychotherapy. Social workers have specialized training in linking patients to community and institutional resources, in addition to elements of psychological assessment and psychotherapy. Marriage-Family Therapists have specific training and experience working with relationships and family issues. A Licensed Professional Counselor (LPC) generally has special training in career, mental health, school, or rehabilitation counseling to include evaluation and assessments as well as psychotherapy. Many of the wide variety of training programs are multiprofessional, that is, psychiatrists, psychologists, mental health nurses, and social workers may be found in the same training group. Consequently, specialized psychotherapeutic training in most countries requires a program of continuing education after the basic degree, or involves multiple certifications attached to one specific degree.
[edit] Specific schools and approaches
Main article: list of psychotherapies
In practices of experienced psychotherapists, therapy will not represent pure types, but will draw aspects from a number of perspectives and schools.[10][11]
[edit] Psychoanalysis
Main article: Psychoanalysis
Freud , seated left of picture with Jung seated at right of picture. 1909
Psychoanalysis was developed in the late 1800s by Sigmund Freud. His therapy explores the dynamic workings of a mind understood to consist of three parts: the hedonistic id (German: das Es, "the it"), the rational ego (das Ich, "the I"), and the moral superego (das Überich, "the above-I"). Because the majority of these dynamics are said to occur outside people's awareness, Freudian psychoanalysis seeks to probe the unconscious by way of various techniques, including dream interpretation and free association. Freud maintained that the condition of the unconscious mind is profoundly influenced by childhood experiences. So, in addition to dealing with the defense mechanisms employed by an overburdened ego, his therapy addresses fixations and other issues by probing deeply into clients' youth.
Other psychodynamic theories and techniques have been developed and used by psychotherapists, psychologists, psychiatrists, personal growth facilitators, occupational therapists and social workers. Techniques for group therapy have also been developed. While behaviour is often a target of the work, many approaches value working with feelings and thoughts. This is especially true of the psychodynamic schools of psychotherapy, which today include Jungian therapy and Psychodrama as well as the psychoanalytic schools. Other approaches focus on the link between the mind and body and try to access deeper levels of the psyche through manipulation of the physical body which gave rise to various body movement based psychotherapeutic approaches such as neo-Reichian Alexander Lowen's Bioenergetic analysis, Peter Levine's Somatic Experiencing, Jack Rosenberg's integrative body psychotherapy, Pat Ogden's sensorimotor psychotherapy etc. They are not to be confused with alternative medicine body-work which seeks primarily to improve physical health because despite the fact that bodywork techniques (for example Alexander Technique, Rolfing, and the Feldenkrais Method) affect the emotions, they are not overtly designed to work on psychological issues.[citation needed]
[edit] Gestalt therapy
Main article: Gestalt Therapy
Gestalt Therapy is a major overhaul of psychoanalysis. In its early development it was called "concentration therapy" by its founders, Frederick and Laura Perls. However, its mix of theoretical influences became most organized around the work of the gestalt psychologists; thus, by the time 'Gestalt Therapy, Excitement and Growth in the Human Personality' (Perls, Hefferline, and Goodman) was written, the approach became known as "Gestalt Therapy."
Gestalt Therapy stands on top of essentially four load bearing theoretical walls: phenomenological method, dialogical relationship, field-theoretical strategies, and experimental freedom. Some have considered it an existential phenomenology while others have described it as a phenomenological behaviorism. Gestalt therapy is a humanistic, holistic, and experiential approach that does not rely on talking alone, but facilitates awareness in the various contexts of life by moving from talking about situations relatively remote to action and direct, current experience.
[edit] Group psychotherapy
Main article: Group psychotherapy
The therapeutic use of groups in modern clinical practice can be traced to the early years of the 20th century, when the American chest physician Pratt, working in Boston, described forming 'classes' of fifteen to twenty patients with tuberculosis who had been rejected for sanatorium treatment.[citation needed] The term group therapy, however, was first used around 1920 by Jacob L. Moreno, whose main contribution was the development of psychodrama, in which groups were used as both cast and audience for the exploration of individual problems by reenactment under the direction of the leader. The more analytic and exploratory use of groups in both hospital and out-patient settings was pioneered by a few European psychoanalysts who emigrated to the USA, such as Paul Schilder, who treated severely neurotic and mildly psychotic out-patients in small groups at Bellevue Hospital, New York. The power of groups was most influentially demonstrated in Britain during the Second World War, when several psychoanalysts and psychiatrists proved the value of group methods for officer selection in the War Office Selection Boards. A chance to run an Army psychiatric unit on group lines was then given to several of these pioneers, notably Wilfred Bion and Rickman, followed by S. H. Foulkes, Main, and Bridger. The Northfield Hospital in Birmingham gave its name to what came to be called the two 'Northfield Experiments', which provided the impetus for the development since the war of both social therapy, that is, the therapeutic community movement, and the use of small groups for the treatment of neurotic and personality disorders.
[edit] Medical and non-medical models
A distinction can also be made between those psychotherapies that employ a medical model and those that employ a humanistic model. In the medical model the client is seen as unwell and the therapist employs their skill to help the client back to health. The extensive use of the DSM-IV, the diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders in the United States, is an example of a medically-exclusive model.
The humanistic model of non medical in contrast strives to depathologise the human condition. The therapist attempts to create a relational environment conducive to experiential learning and help build the client's confidence in their own natural process resulting in a deeper understanding of themselves. An example would be gestalt therapy.
Some psychodynamic practitioners distinguish between more uncovering and more supportive psychotherapy. Uncovering psychotherapy emphasizes facilitating the client's insight into the roots of their difficulties. The best-known example of an uncovering psychotherapy is classical psychoanalysis. Supportive psychotherapy by contrast stresses strengthening the client's defenses and often providing encouragement and advice. Depending on the client's personality, a more supportive or more uncovering approach may be optimal. Most psychotherapists use a combination of uncovering and supportive approaches.
[edit] Cognitive behavioral therapy
Main article: Cognitive behavioral therapy
Cognitive behavioral therapy refers to a range of techniques which focus on the construction and re-construction of people's cognitions, emotions and behaviors. Generally in CBT the therapist, through a wide array of modalities, helps clients assess, recognize and deal with problematic and dysfunctional ways of thinking, emoting and behaving.
[edit] Behavior therapy
Main article: Behavior Therapy
Behavior therapy focuses on modifying overt behavior and helping clients to achieve goals. This approach is built on the principles of learning theory including operant and respondent conditioning, which makes up the area of applied behavior analysis or behavior modification. This approach includes acceptance and commitment therapy, functional analytic psychotherapy, and dialectical behavior therapy. Sometimes it is integrated with cognitive therapy to make cognitive behavior therapy. By nature, behavioral therapies are empirical (data-driven), contextual (focused on the environment and context), functional (interested in the effect or consequence a behavior ultimately has), probabilistic (viewing behavior as statistically predictable), monistic (rejecting mind-body dualism and treating the person as a unit), and relational (analyzing bidirectional interactions).[12]
[edit] Expressive therapy
Main article: Expressive therapy
Expressive therapy is a form of therapy that utilizes artistic expression as its core means of treating clients. Expressive therapists use the different disciplines of the creative arts as therapeutic interventions. This includes the modalities dance therapy, drama therapy, art therapy, music therapy, writing therapy, among others. Expressive therapists believe that often the most effective way of treating a client is through the expression of imagination in a creative work and integrating and processing what issues are raised in the act.
[edit] Narrative therapy
Main article: Narrative therapy
Narrative therapy gives attention to each person's "dominant story" by means of therapeutic conversations, which also may involve exploring unhelpful ideas and how they came to prominence. Possible social and cultural influences may be explored if the client deems it helpful.
[edit] Integrative psychotherapy
Main article: Integrative Psychotherapy
Integrative Psychotherapy represents an attempt to combine ideas and strategies from more than one theoretical approach.[13] These approaches include mixing core beliefs and combining proven techniques. Forms of integrative psychotherapy include multimodal therapy, the transtheoretical model, cyclical psychodynamics, systematic treatment selection, cognitive analytic therapy, Internal Family Systems Model, multitheoretical psychotherapy and conceptual interaction. In practice, most experienced psychotherapists develop their own integrative approach over time.
[edit] Hypnotherapy
Main article: Hypnotherapy
Hypnotherapy is therapy that is undertaken with a subject in hypnosis. Hypnotherapy is often applied in order to modify a subject's behavior, emotional content, and attitudes, as well as a wide range of conditions including dysfunctional habits, anxiety, stress-related illness, pain management, and personal development.
[edit] Adaptations for children
Counseling and psychotherapy must be adapted to meet the developmental needs of children. Many counseling preparation programs include courses in human development. Since children often do not have the ability to articulate thoughts and feelings, counselors will use a variety of media such as crayons, paint, clay, puppets, bibliocounseling (books), toys, board games, et cetera. The use of play therapy is often rooted in psychodynamic theory, but other approaches such as Solution Focused Brief Counseling may also employ the use of play in counseling. In many cases the counselor may prefer to work with the care taker of the child, especially if the child is younger than age four. Yet, by doing so, the counselor risks the perpetuation of maladaptive interactive patterns and the adverse effects on development that have already been effected on the child's end of the relationship[14] Therefore, contemporary thinking on working with this young age group has leaned towards working with parent and child simultaneously within the interaction, as well as individually as needed.[15]
[edit] Confidentiality
Further information: client confidentiality, and physician-patient privilege
Confidentiality is an integral part of the therapeutic relationship and psychotherapy in general.
[edit] Criticisms and questions regarding effectiveness
Within the psychotherapeutic community there has been some discussion of empirically-based psychotherapy, e.g.[16]
Virtually no comparisons of different psychotherapies with long follow-up times have been carried out.[17] The Helsinki Psychotherapy Study[18] is a randomized clinical trial, in which patients are monitored for 12 months after the onset of study treatments, of which each lasted approximately 6 months. The assessments are to be completed at the baseline examination and during the follow-up after 3, 7, and 9 months and 1, 1.5, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 years. The final results of this trial are yet to be published since follow-up evaluations will continue up to 2009.
There is considerable controversy over which form of psychotherapy is most effective, and more specifically, which types of therapy are optimal for treating which sorts of problems.[19]
The dropout level is quite high; one meta-analysis of 125 studies concluded that the mean dropout rate was 46.86%.[20] The high level of dropout has raised some criticism about the relevance and efficacy of psychotherapy.
Psychotherapy outcome research—in which the effectiveness of psychotherapy is measured by questionnaires given to patients before, during, and after treatment—has had difficulty distinguishing between the success or failure of the different approaches to therapy. Those who stay with their therapist for longer periods are more likely to report positively on what develops into a longer-term relationship. This suggests that some "treatment" may be open-ended with concerns associated with ongoing financial costs.
As early as 1952, in one of the earliest studies of psychotherapy treatment, Hans Eysenck reported that two thirds of therapy patients improved significantly or recovered on their own within two years, whether or not they received psychotherapy.[21]
Many psychotherapists believe that the nuances of psychotherapy cannot be captured by questionnaire-style observation, and prefer to rely on their own clinical experiences and conceptual arguments to support the type of treatment they practice.
In 2001 Bruce Wampold of the University of Wisconsin published "The Great Psychotherapy Debate"[22]. In it Wampold, a former statistician who went on to train as a counseling psychologist, reported that
1. psychotherapy is indeed effective,
2. the type of treatment is not a factor,
3. the theoretical bases of the techniques used as well as the strictness of adherence to those techniques are both not factors,
4. the therapist's strength of belief in the efficacy of the technique is a factor,
5. the therapist as a person is a large factor,
6. the alliance between the patients and the therapist (meaning affectionate and trusting feelings toward the therapist, motivation and collaboration of the client, and empathic response of the therapist) is a key factor.
Wampold therefore concludes that "we do not know why psychotherapy works".
Although the Great Psychotherapy Debate dealt primarily with data on depressed patients, subsequent articles have made similar findings for post-traumatic stress disorder[23] and youth disorders.[24]
Some report that by attempting to program or manualize treatment psychotherapists may actually be reducing efficacy, although the unstructured approach of many psychotherapists cannot appeal to patients motived to solve their difficulties through the application of specific techniques different from their past "mistakes."
Critics of psychotherapy are skeptical of the healing power of a psychotherapeutic relationship.[25] Since any intervention takes time, critics note that the passage of time alone, without therapeutic intervention, often results in psycho-social healing.[26] Social contact with others is universally seen as beneficial for all humans and regularly scheduled visits with anyone would be likely to diminish both mild and severe emotional difficulty.
Many resources available to a person experiencing emotional distress—the friendly support of friends, peers, family members, clergy contacts, personal reading, research, and independent coping—present considerable value. Critics note that humans have been dealing with crises, navigating severe social problems and finding solutions to life problems long before the advent of psychotherapy.[27] Of course, it may well be something in the patient that does not develop these "natural" supports that requires therapy.
Further critiques have emerged from feminist, constructionist and discursive sources. Key to these is the issue of power. In this regard there is a concern that clients are persuaded—both inside and outside of the consulting room—to understand themselves and their difficulties in ways that are consistent with therapeutic ideas. This means that alternative ideas (e.g., feminist, economic, spiritual) are sometimes implicitly undermined. Critics suggest that we idealise the situation when we think of therapy only as a helping relation. It is also fundamentally a political practice, in that some cultural ideas and practices are supported while others are undermined or disqualified. So, while it is seldom intended, the therapist-client relationship always participates in society's power relations and political dynamics.[28]
[edit] References
1. ^ Your dictionary definition
2. ^ Merriam-Webster dictionary definition
3. ^ Frank, Jerome (1988) [1979]. "What is Psychotherapy?". in Bloch, Sidney (ed.). An Introduction to the Psychotherapies. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 1–2. ISBN 0-19-261469-X.
4. ^ Schechter DS, Coates SW (2006). Relationally and Developmentally Focused Interventions with Young Children and Their Caregivers Affected by the Events of 9/11. In Y. Neria, R. Gross, R. Marshall, E. Susser (Eds.) September 11, 2001: Treatment, Research and Public Mental Health in the Wake of a Terrorist Attack, New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 402-427.
5. ^ Henrick 1980
6. ^ Maclennan 1996
7. ^ Fadul, J.; Canlas, R. (2009), Chess Therapy, p. 7, http://www.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=ARdncCWznjUC&oi=fnd&pg=PT8&dq=Fadul+Chess+Therapy&ots=XGkgl42sqw&sig=8GsW2OP2dVqcT9HCcVcPL0tseCY#v=onepage&q=&f=false, retrieved 2009-11-17
8. ^ Corp, N.; Tsaroucha, A.; Kingston, P. (2008), "Human Givens Therapy: The Evidence Base", Mental Health Review Journal 13 (4): 44–52, http://pavilionjournals.metapress.com/index/P83X3Q14J6J5187J.pdf, retrieved 2009-06-03
9. ^ The Top 10: The Most Influential Therapists of the Past Quarter-Century. Psychotherapy Networker.: 2007, March/April (retrieved 11 Sept 2007)
10. ^ Hans Strupp and Jeffrey Binder, Psychotherapy in a New Key. New York, Basic Books, 1984, ISBN 9780465067473
11. ^ Anthony Roth and Peter Fonagy, What Works for Whom? A Critical Review of Psychotherapy Research, Guilford Press, 2005, ISBN 572306505
12. ^ Sundberg, Norman (2001). Clinical Psychology: Evolving Theory, Practice, and Research. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall. ISBN 0130871192.
13. ^ Handbook of Psychotherapy, (Norcross&Goldried, 2005)
14. ^ Schechter DS, Willheim E (2009). When parenting becomes unthinkable: Intervening with traumatized parents and their toddlers. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 48(3), 249-254.
15. ^ Lieberman, A.F., Van Horn, P., Ippen, C.G. (2005). Towards evidence-based treatment: Child-parent psychotherapy with preschoolers exposed to marital violence. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 44, 1241-1248.
16. ^ Silverman, DK (2005), "What Works in Psychotherapy and How Do We Know?: What Evidence-Based Practice Has to Offer", Psychoanalytic Psychology 22 (2): 306–312, doi:10.1037/0736-9735.22.2.306
17. ^ Härkänen, T; Knekt, P; Virtala, E; Lindfors, O; the Helsinki Psychotherapy Study Group (2005), "A case study in comparing therapies involving informative drop-out, non-ignorable non-compliance and repeated measurements", Statistics in medicine 24 (24): 3773–3787, doi:10.1002/sim.2409
18. ^ Helsinki Psychotherapy Study
19. ^ For Psychotherapy's Claims, Skeptics Demand Proof Benedict Carey , The New York Times , August 10, 2004. Accessed December 2006
20. ^ Wierzbicki, M; Pekarik, G (May 1993), "A Meta-Analysis of Psychotherapy Dropout", Professional Psychology: Research and Practice 24 (2): 190–195, doi:10.1037/0735-7028.24.2.190, http://psycnet.apa.org/index.cfm?fa=search.displayRecord&uid=1993-30339-001
21. ^ Eysenck, Hans (1952). The Effects of Psychotherapy: An Evaluation. Journal of Consulting Psychology. pp. 16: 319–324.
22. ^ The Great Psychotherapy Debate Bruce E. Wampold, Ph.D. University of Wisconsin-Madison . Accessed December 2006
23. ^ Benish, S. G., Imel, Z. E., \& Wampold, B. E. (in press). The Relative Efficacy of Bona Fide Psychotherapies for Treating Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A Meta-Analysis of Direct Comparisons Clinical Psychology Review.
24. ^ Miller, S. D., Wampold, B. E., & Varhely, K. (In press). Direct comparisons of treatment modalities for youth disorders: A meta-analysis. Psychotherapy Research
25. ^ 1988. Against Therapy: Emotional Tyranny and the Myth of Psychological Healing. ISBN 0-689-11929-1, Jeffrey Moussaieff Masson
26. ^ Therapy's Delusions, The Myth of the Unconscious and the Exploitation of Today's Walking Worried by Ethan Watters & Richard Ofshe published by Scribner, New York, 1999
27. ^ Füredi, F. (2003) Therapy Culture: Cultivating Vulnerability in an Uncertain Age: Routledge, (ISBN 0-415-32159-X)
28. ^ Guilfoyle, M. (2005). From therapeutic power to resistance: Therapy and cultural hegemony. Theory & Psychology, 15(1), 101-124:
* Henrik, R. (ed) The Psychotherapy Handbook. The A-Z handbook to more than 250 psychotherapies as used today (1980) New American Library.
* Maclennan, Nigel. Counselling For Managers (1996) Gower. ISBN 0566080923
* Asay, Ted P., and Michael J. Lambert (1999). The Empirical Case for the Common Factors in Therapy: Quantitative Findings. In Hubble, Duncan, Miller (Eds), The Heart and Soul of Change (pp. 23–55)
[edit] Psychodynamic schools
* Aziz, Robert, C.G. Jung’s Psychology of Religion and Synchronicity (1990), currently in its 10th printing, a refereed publication of The State University of New York Press. ISBN 0-7914-0166-9.
* Aziz, Robert, Synchronicity and the Transformation of the Ethical in Jungian Psychology in Carl B. Becker, ed. Asian and Jungian Views of Ethics. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1999. ISBN 0-313-30452-1.
* Aziz, Robert, The Syndetic Paradigm: The Untrodden Path Beyond Freud and Jung (2007), a refereed publication of The State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-6982-8.
* Bateman, Anthony; Brown, Dennis and Pedder, Jonathan (2000). Introduction to Psychotherapy: An Outline of Psychodynamic Principles and Practice. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-20569-7.
* Bateman, A.; and Holmes, J. (1995). Introduction to Psychoanalysis: Contemporary Theory and Practice. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-10739-3.
* Oberst, U. E. and Stewart, A. E. (2003). Adlerian Psychotherapy: An Advanced Approach to Individual Psychology. New York: Brunner-Routledge. ISBN 1-58391-122-7
* Ellenberger, Henri F. (1970). The Discovery of the Unconscious: The History and Evolution of Dynamic Psychiatry. Basic Books.
[edit] Humanistic schools
* Schneider (et al.), Kirk (2001). The Handbook of Humanistic Psychology. SAGE Publications. ISBN 0-7619-2121-4.
* Rowan, John (2001). Ordinary Ecstasy. Brunner-Routledge. ISBN 0-415-23632-0.
* Ansel Woldt, Sarah Toman (eds) (2005). Gestalt Therapy History, Theory, and Practice. Gestalt Press. ISBN 0-7619-2791-3 (pbk.).
* Crocker, Sylvia (1999). A Well-Lived Life, Essays in Gestalt Therapy. SAGE Publications. ISBN 0-88163-287-2 (pbk.).
* Russon, John (2003). Human Experience: Philosophy, Neurosis, and the Elements of Everyday Life. State University of New York Press. ISBN 9780791457542 (pbk.).
* Yontef, Gary (1993). Awareness, Dialogue, and Process. The Gestalt Journal Press, Inc.. ISBN 0-939266-20-2 (pbk.).
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UPKG File
Legacy:UPKG File
From Unreal Wiki, The Unreal Engine Documentation Site
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This type of file is used to tell ucc what flags to set to the current package. They are placed in the Classes folder.
The upkg file is a helper file (such as the INI file or INT file). As with the other two, this, as well, is a simple text file which can simply be edited in Notepad. This is very similar to the int file in behavior, with the difference that the int is used after compilation to add new things to the game, while the ukpg is used before compilation.
They consist of one or more sections which start with the section Flags marked in brackets followed by Key=Value boolean pairs.
*
Attribution-Noncommercial-Share Alike 3.0
* Last modified at 05:07, 25 June 2007.
* Viewed 864 times.
* Licensed as Attribution-Noncommercial-Share Alike 3.0.
* Privacy policy
* About Unreal Wiki
* Disclaimers
From Unreal Wiki, The Unreal Engine Documentation Site
Jump to: navigation, search
This type of file is used to tell ucc what flags to set to the current package. They are placed in the Classes folder.
The upkg file is a helper file (such as the INI file or INT file). As with the other two, this, as well, is a simple text file which can simply be edited in Notepad. This is very similar to the int file in behavior, with the difference that the int is used after compilation to add new things to the game, while the ukpg is used before compilation.
They consist of one or more sections which start with the section Flags marked in brackets followed by Key=Value boolean pairs.
*
Attribution-Noncommercial-Share Alike 3.0
* Last modified at 05:07, 25 June 2007.
* Viewed 864 times.
* Licensed as Attribution-Noncommercial-Share Alike 3.0.
* Privacy policy
* About Unreal Wiki
* Disclaimers
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